The Past & Future of Self-Governance: How General Assemblies Build Dual Power

Strengthen Communities Through Direct Democracy and Mutual Aid

Photo by Chayna Girling via Flickr

As we face cascading, systemic crises—whether economic inequality, climate change, or exclusion—there is an urgent need to reimagine power. One of the most effective tools for achieving this is the general assembly: a participatory decision-making body that empowers communities to self-govern.

Rooted in the principles of direct democracy and mutual aid, general assemblies provide a foundation for dual power, where autonomous institutions challenge and ultimately seek to replace the existing systems of domination. These assemblies offer a radical alternative to hierarchical governance, catalyzing communities to re-envision themselves and enact transformative social change from the ground up.

Throughout history, the general assembly has been a cornerstone of revolutionary movements. From the Paris Commune to the Zapatistas, Occupy Wall Street, and the Kurdish peoples in Rojava and beyond, these assemblies demonstrate the power of collective action and participatory governance. We can better understand their potential as vehicles for dual power and systemic change by examining their principles, structures, and historical significance.

What is a General Assembly?

Photo by Nathan Rupert via Flickr

A general assembly is a space where everyday individuals with common interests come together to deliberate and decide on matters affecting their community. It operates on horizontalism, inclusivity, and consensus or near-consensus decision-making.

General assemblies seek to replace conventional, capitalist modes of government like city councils or representative congresses. They involve citizens speaking directly on behalf of themselves and others to advocate for their needs and important community concerns.

These councils of working citizens enable them to act in an organized fashion through reaching agreement, or consensus. Rather than elected representatives who nowadays get paid to serve corporate interests, citizens work to achieve common goals together despite conventional government disregard or outright oppression.

Assemblies have been central to movements such as Occupy Wall Street, the Paris Commune, the Zapatistas in Chiapas, and Kurdish self-governance in Rojava. They reject top-down authority in favor of grassroots participation, ensuring every voice has an opportunity to shape collective outcomes.

General Assemblies as Dual Power

Photo by Chayna Girling via Flickr

Dual power refers to establishing alternative institutions that coexist with—yet ultimately seek to replace—capitalist, colonial, and state systems. Some refer to this strategy as prefigurative politics. General assemblies serve as the backbone of these grassroots institutions, offering a framework for democratic control over resources, labor, and communal priorities.

1. Community Control: Assemblies provide a direct way for communities to manage resources such as food, housing, and healthcare. For example, an assembly may organize a community garden or food forest, ensuring equitable access to fresh produce.

2. Collective Decision-Making: Unlike electoral politics, general assemblies foster participation beyond voting. Members actively engage in discussion, creating decisions that reflect shared values rather than top-down mandates.

3. Building Solidarity: Assemblies create networks of mutual aid, allowing communities to pool resources, skills, and labor to meet collective needs. This solidarity strengthens resilience against crises.

Historical and Contemporary Examples

• The Paris Commune (1871): Perhaps one of the earliest examples of a general assembly model, the Paris Commune empowered citizens to self-govern, challenge capitalism, and implement egalitarian policies. Assemblies in neighborhoods served as platforms for debating and deciding critical issues, fostering an unprecedented level of popular participation.

• The Zapatistas (1994-Present): Indigenous Mayan peoples and adjacent communities organized in opposition to Mexico implementing NAFTA with the United States and Canada. One requirement the USA imposed upon Mexico was to change its Constitution to no longer recognize indigenous land rights. This made way for American multinational corporations to more easily extract resources from Chiapas. The Zapatistas armed and self-organized, and they continue to resist and now manage 18% of Mexico autonomously.

• Rojava (2012–Present): Kurdish communities in Northern Syria have implemented a system of democratic confederalism, with local councils and assemblies managing everything from defense to education, grounded in feminist and ecological principles.

• Occupy Wall Street (2011): While criticized for its lack of formal structure, the movement's general assemblies demonstrated the potential for direct democratic governance in the heart of a capitalist system.

• And many more…

Assemblies Within the Paris Commune

“Paris-commune-liberty-on-the-barricades” by Pouazity3 via Wikimedia

The Paris Commune of 1871 offers one of history's most compelling examples of assemblies functioning as instruments of revolutionary change. Emerging during a period of social upheaval in France, the Commune rejected centralized authority and embraced a participatory model of governance.

1. Neighborhood Assemblies: Each neighborhood in Paris hosted its own assembly, where residents deliberated on issues such as labor conditions, education, and military defense. These assemblies acted as both legislative and executive bodies, bridging the gap between decision-making and implementation.

2. Worker Empowerment: The Commune prioritized the empowerment of workers through collective ownership and management of resources. Factories abandoned by their owners were reopened as cooperatives, with assemblies playing a pivotal role in their governance.

3. Radical Democracy: The assemblies sought to dismantle hierarchical systems by ensuring that representatives were directly accountable to their constituents. Officials were subject to immediate recall if they failed to serve the community's interests.

4. Inclusivity: Although short-lived, the Commune's assemblies made significant strides in incorporating marginalized voices, including women, into political life. Organizations like the Union of Women for the Defense of Paris advocated for gender equality and played a vital role in shaping communal policies.

The Paris Commune's assemblies remain a testament to the transformative power of participatory democracy. Despite its eventual suppression, the Commune's legacy continues to inspire movements seeking to build dual power and challenge oppressive systems.

The Zapatistas' Model of Assembly

“Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional” by Julian Stallabrass via Wikimedia

The Zapatista movement in Chiapas, Mexico, provides a profound example of general assemblies in action. Their governance model, rooted in the principle of mandar obedeciendo ("lead by obeying"), embodies the ideals of participatory democracy and collective decision-making.

1. Local and Regional Councils: The Zapatistas organize their communities into local and regional councils known as "caracoles" and "Juntas de Buen Gobierno" (Good Government Councils). These councils serve as the administrative bodies, making decisions collectively through assemblies that include all community members.

2. Rotational Leadership: Leadership positions are not permanent but rotate among members to prevent the accumulation of power. This ensures that leadership remains accountable and rooted in community needs.

3. Consensus Building: Decisions in Zapatista assemblies are made through consensus, ensuring that every participant has a voice and that outcomes reflect collective will rather than majority rule.

4. Cultural Integration: Zapatista assemblies incorporate Indigenous traditions and values, recognizing the importance of cultural identity in self-governance. Rituals, storytelling, and community celebrations often accompany decision-making processes, strengthening social bonds.

5. Education and Autonomy: The assemblies prioritize education, both in terms of literacy and political consciousness, empowering members to understand and actively shape their governance structures.

The Zapatista model demonstrates that general assemblies are not merely theoretical constructs but practical tools for building resilient, autonomous communities. Their success offers a blueprint for others seeking to implement dual power in diverse contexts.

Assemblies in Kurdish Self-Governance

“Palangan village in Kurdistan region, Iran” by Matyas Rehak via Shutterstock

The Kurdish movement, particularly in Rojava (Northern Syria), provides a contemporary example of general assemblies used to build dual power. Grounded in the philosophy of democratic confederalism, inspired by Abdullah Öcalan and the writings of Murray Bookchin, the Kurdish model emphasizes direct democracy, ecological sustainability, and gender equality.

1. Democratic Confederalism: This ideology rejects the centralized nation-state in favor of a networked system of local councils and assemblies, which govern everything from education to resource management. Decisions made at the local level are coordinated with broader regional goals, creating a decentralized but cohesive governance structure.

2. Women's Leadership: A core principle of Kurdish assemblies is gender parity. Institutions such as the Women's Houses ensure that women have equal representation and a dedicated space to address issues like domestic violence, economic inequality, and cultural empowerment. Co-chair systems ensure every leadership position is shared between a man and a woman, preventing the concentration of power.

3. Pluralism and Inclusivity: Kurdish assemblies include representatives from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, fostering coexistence in a region historically plagued by division. Minority groups, including Yazidis, Assyrians, and Armenians, participate fully in the decision-making process.

4. Defense and Security: In Rojava, community defense is managed through assemblies that prioritize collective safety. Civilian militias, such as the People's Protection Units (YPG) and the Women's Protection Units (YPJ), operate under the direction of local councils, ensuring defense is community-led.

5. Education and Political Consciousness: The Kurdish assemblies emphasize education as a means of empowering participants. Schools and workshops teach not only literacy and vocational skills but also the principles of democratic confederalism, equipping individuals to engage fully in self-governance.

This Kurdish model exemplifies how general assemblies can adapt to complex, multi-ethnic contexts while maintaining a commitment to participatory democracy and mutual aid. Their success demonstrates that even in the face of war and oppression, assemblies can serve as a powerful tool for building dual power and fostering resilience.

Challenges and Opportunities

Photo by mentalmind via Shutterstock

While general assemblies offer immense potential, they are not without challenges. Ensuring inclusivity requires addressing barriers such as time constraints, childcare needs, and accessibility for disabled and elderly individuals. Furthermore, assemblies must guard against co-optation, factionalism, and the replication of hierarchical structures.

However, these challenges are also opportunities. Building assemblies that reflect diverse voices strengthens their legitimacy and effectiveness. Leveraging digital tools, such as online voting platforms and communication channels, can expand participation without sacrificing democratic values.

How to Build a General Assembly

1. Start Local: Identify a specific community need—such as housing security or disaster relief—and invite affected individuals to participate.

2. Set Ground Rules: Establish norms for respectful communication, decision-making, and conflict resolution.

3. Emphasize Education: Provide participants with resources on assembly processes and the principles of dual power.

4. Build Networks: Connect your assembly to others in your region or across movements, creating a broader ecosystem of mutual aid and resistance.

Common General Assembly Etiquette

To ensure efficient and inclusive communication, many general assemblies use hand signals and establish rules of conduct. These tools help maintain order and amplify marginalized voices in large groups.

Photo by Ed via Flickr

Hand Signals

Hand signals allow participants to express their thoughts nonverbally during discussions, preventing interruptions and ensuring smoother facilitation. Some commonly used hand signals include:

• Raise Hand: Indicates a desire to speak. Participants are called on in the order their hands are raised.

• Twinkling Fingers (Agreement): Waving fingers upward expresses agreement or support without interrupting the speaker.

• Twinkling Fingers Down (Disagreement): Waving fingers downward shows disagreement.

• Make a T-Shape (Technical Point): Signals a procedural or logistical concern, such as asking for clarification or pointing out a time constraint.

• C Shape (Clarification): Requests further explanation of a point without challenging its validity.

• Hands Crossed in an X (Block): Indicates strong opposition, often reserved for issues of ethical or foundational importance. Blocks typically require serious discussion and consensus before moving forward.

Code of Conduct

Photo by Cytonn Photography on Unsplash

General assemblies often establish norms to create a respectful and productive environment. Key rules of conduct include:

1. One Mic at a Time: Only one person speaks at a time to ensure everyone's voice is heard.

2. Step Up, Step Back: Encourages individuals who speak frequently to make space for others, while quieter participants are encouraged to share their thoughts.

3. Respect the Stack: Speakers are chosen based on a queue (the "stack") to ensure fairness in participation. Facilitators may prioritize marginalized voices.

4. No Interruptions: Participants listen actively and wait for their turn to speak.

5. Speak to the Issue: Focus on the topic at hand rather than personal grievances or tangential discussions.

6. Use "I" Statements: Encourages participants to speak from their own experiences, reducing defensiveness and fostering constructive dialogue.

These practices create a structured yet flexible environment, ensuring assemblies remain equitable, efficient, and democratic.

Final Thoughts

Photo by Chayna Girling via Flickr

General assemblies are more than just meetings; they are incubators of revolutionary potential. By fostering direct democracy and mutual aid, assemblies empower communities to reclaim control over their lives while challenging oppressive systems.

From the Paris Commune's neighborhood councils to the Zapatistas' culturally integrated assemblies, these structures demonstrate the transformative power of collective decision-making. As we face growing ecological, economic, and social crises, the general assembly offers a proven model for building resilient, autonomous communities capable of envisioning and enacting a just future.

The challenge lies not only in creating assemblies but in sustaining them. By addressing barriers to participation, fostering inclusivity, and building networks of solidarity, we can ensure these assemblies thrive. In doing so, we take a crucial step toward a world rooted in equity, justice, and mutual aid—a world where power truly belongs to the people.

Beyond Survival of the Fittest - Mutual Aid Index

1. Beyond Survival of the Fittest: Kropotkin's Vision of Mutual Aid

   1. What is the role of solidarity and reciprocity in building equitable and sustainable communities?

2. Mutual Aid Among Plants and Animals: Cooperating for Survival

   1. Peter Kropotkin Observes How Cooperation Among Species Improves Survival and Shapes Evolution.

3. Frolics and Barn-Raisings: Mutual Aid Amongst the Amish

   1. Take a Look at the Amish Traditions of Collective Action and Solidarity.

4. The Arab Spring: Mutual Aid in the Fight for Freedom

   1. See Solidarity in Action with the Collective Struggle for Liberation in the Arab Spring Movements.

5. The Black Panther Party’s Legacy of Community Empowerment Through Mutual Aid

   1. The BPP protected and served their communities despite rampant racism and being the main targets of the FBI’s Counter-Intelligence Program.

6. Blessing Boxes: Mutual Aid in Our Communities Today

   1. Find Out How These Simple Free Community Pantries Transform Neighborhoods and Promote Solidarity.

7. Childcare Collectives: A Modern Expression of Mutual Aid

   1. Childcare Collectives develop when families, friends, and neighbors pool their resources to raise children.

8. Feeding Hope: The Impact of Community Fridges as Mutual Aid

   1. See How Grassroots Efforts Like Chattanooga’s Hope Community Fridge Transforms Food Access and Fights Food Apartheid.

9. Grow Food Together: The Impact of Community Gardening as Mutual Aid

   1. Shared Gardens Enhance Food Security, Build Community Bonds, and Promote Well-being Without Personal Expense.

10. Community Self-Defense: Protecting Ourselves and One Another

    1. Let’s Talk About How Communities Work Together to Protect Themselves From Harm Inflicted by the State and Fascists.

11. Community Workspaces: Where Coworking Meets Opportunity

    1. Find Out How Shared Community Workspaces Support Creativity and Mutual Empowerment.

12. Deciding Together: The Consensus Model in Mutual Aid

    1. How Collective Decision-Making Builds Strong and Resilient Movements As Shown by Occupy Wall Street.

13. Live Together, Thrive Together: Shared Housing as Mutual Aid

    1. Imagine Housing as a Way to Build Community and Share Resources.

14. Breaking Bread, Building Bonds: What’s Cooking in Community Kitchens?

    1. Learn How These Shared Kitchens Create Lasting Change Through Healthy Meals, Cooking Education, and Mutual Aid.

15. Migration and Mutual Aid: Navigating a Climate Crisis Together

    1. The USA and Global North Grew Rich Burning Fossil Fuels. Radical Cooperation Can Help Us Adapt to a Changing World.

16. Forgive Us Our Debts: How Debt Collective Helps Abolish Financial Servitude

    1. Debt Collective Branched Off From Occupy Wall Street and Unifies Debtors in Mutual Aid for Collective Liberation.

17. Thou Doth Protest? How The Diggers Reclaimed the Commons and Fought Early Capitalism

    1. Learn About the Radical Solidarity and Resistance to the Enclosure of the Common Lands in 17th-Century England.

18. A World Without Barriers: Consider Accessibility in Mutual Aid

    1. Everyone Becomes Disabled if They Are Lucky. So How Can We Make Our World More Accessible?

19. Mutual Aid in the Eye of the Storm: Disaster Relief Amid Climate Change

    1. When Disaster Strikes, Mutual Aid Responds: A Blueprint for Resilience Amid More Frequent Catastrophes

20. Beyond the Ballot Box: Build Dual Power for Real Change

    1. Empower People Through Mutual Aid, Solidarity, and Community Control.

21. Communities of Care: How Solidarity Transforms Support for Elders and the Differently-Abled

    1. How Can Mutual Aid Principles Change Elderly and Disabled Care From Isolation to Connection?

22. Growing Resistance: How Food Forests Feed Communities for Free and Defy Capitalism

    1. From Commodities to Commons: The Radical Potential of Agroforestry

23. Roots of Resilience: Black Mutual Aid Societies in American History

    1. Explore W.E.B. Du Bois’ Work and the Heritage of Solidarity Among Black Folk.

24. From Despair to Dignity: The Radical Work of Free Clinics

    1. How Mutual Aid and Community Solidarity Transform Access to Healthcare

25. Feeding Each Other: The Radical Power of Free Grocery Stores

    1. How This Kind of Mutual Aid Transforms Hunger Relief into Community Empowerment

26. Challenge Capitalism One Free Store at a Time

    1. How Free Stores Empower Communities and Challenge Scarcity

27. The Past & Future of Self-Governance: How General Assemblies Build Dual Power

    1. Strengthen Communities Through Direct Democracy and Mutual Aid